Sakai K, Sastre JP, Kanamori N, Jouvet M. State-specific neurons in the ponto-medullary reticular formation with special reference to the postural atonia during paradoxical sleep in the cat. Geschichte der Physiologie. The tonic inhibition of motoneurons by circuits in the alphacoeruleus nucleus during desynchronized sleep is mediated by hyperpolarization of their membrane (41-43). In rats bilateral lesion of the midbrain reticular formation is followed by a long lasting state of synchronized sleep, with predominance of phase III (Timo-Iaria, Assumpo & Bernardi, unpublished observations). Inasmuch as all this relevant knowledge is entirely ignored, we hope the present review may help in rescuing it (4). If, as an advantage, in humans such manifestations of dreams can be related to their reported content, in non-human animals it is possible to record with a high degree of accuracy not only the motor and the vegetative manifestations of dremaing but the electro-oscillograms of many central structures as well. This causes the amygdala and hippocampus to become active, which help to influence the brain systems that control sensations, memories, and emotions. Fortunately, thanks to this peculiar incomplete motoneuron inhibition we are able to record movements occurring in both humans and non-human animals and thus infer the presence of dreams. Modifications of recurrent discharge of the alpha motoneurons during sleep. Role of pontine tegmentum for locomotor control in mesencephalic cat. Aristotle. Proposed by Harvard psychiatrists J. Allan Hobson and Robert McCarley in 1977, the theory posits that dreams are your brains attempts to make sense of random patterns of firing neurons while you slumber. At the age between 7 and 9 years Foulkes' subjects produced much more consistent narrations of the dream content, as should be expected (24). The oscillation of the sleep depth as cycles, as is well known presently, is quite clear in this figure. These findings do not necessarily mean that such areas are involved in generating dreaming. eCollection 2021 Aug 12. 2019 Oct 22;10:1127. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2019.01127. Thus, any study of dreaming also lends itself to psychological scrutiny and clinical application. Kahn D, Pace-Schott EF, Hobson JA. Brain activity during this time keeps us 126. Activity of the red nucleus during deep, desynchronized sleep in the unrestrained cat. Respiratory frequency decreases during the entire sleep cycle but is phasically activated during dreaming because it is a vegetative function that has to be increased in any behavior, including the oniric ones. Such a recovery means that other mechanisms are put into action that are able to generate not only wakefulness but desynchronized sleep as well. Regional cerebral glucose metabolic rate in human sleep assessed by positron emission tomography. Mirmiran M, Van Someren E. The importance of REM sleep for brain maturation. 104. Jouvet M. Neurophysiology of the states of sleep. 108. Such electrophysiological studies demonstrate that the abovementioned sites in the central nervous system are involved in the oniric movements but they do not prove that such structures generate them. Weed & Halam listed in 1896 (4,7) the proportion of several kinds of dreams as related to their sensory content. Jouvet M. The role of monoamines and acetylcholine-containing neurons in the regulation of the sleep-waking cycle. Neurons from the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis send fibers to nucleus reticularis gigantocellularis in the medulla, a part of which passes through the dorsal tegmental field of the pons, and electrical stimulation of both nuclei also produces inhibition of muscle tone (53,54). Epub 2010 Nov 12. Marini G. Motor phenomena during sleep. Bol Inst Est Md Biol Mxico 1962;20:155-64. Gassel MM, Marchiafava PL, Pompeiano O. Behav Brain Res 1995;69:13-22. Brain Res 1985;327:362-6. However, in the animals subjected to a rich-environment zif-268 increased significantly from synchronized to desynchronized sleep but decreased from wakefulness to synchronized sleep. This author "thus proposes a psychoanalytical model of dreaming, in which dreams constitute a way of representing the individual's inner world with internal objects related with one another and with the self" (135). Stimulus response theory of dream: The stimulus response theory which existed prior to Freud is based upon the associationistic stimulus response view. This theory stresses the relationship between brain changes during sleep and changes in perceptual efficiency. Some disturbing stimuli force activity into one portion of the cerebral cortex. A powerful defensive behavior, the withdrawal "reflex" (or retraction behavior, as we prefer to call it), is also completely inhibited during this phase of sleep. Dreams are still taken by a majority of the human kind as premonitory, ascribing them the function of telling us that something important will happen. De Sanctis, in 1899, in his book I Sogni, Studi Clinici ed Psicologici di un Alienista (Dreams, Clinical and Psychological Studies of a Psychiatrist), cites no less than 323 articles and books dealing with dreams, which proves that the objective study of dreams did not start during the middle of the 20th century, as is usually taken for granted (4). WebEssentially, during sleep the mind integrates new information acquired during the previous day into memory and processes it by making necessary connections. Nature 1989;304:111-4. However, during desynchronized sleep it was drastically reduced, being entirely inhibited for most of the time. Vertes RP. 9. Winson (1990) believes that dreams "reflect an individual strategy for survival. Moruzzi G. The sleep-wakefulness cycle. Decety J, Jeannerod M, Durozard DR, Baveal J. Now, the recent advent of deep neural networks (DNNs) has finally provided the novel conceptual framework within which to understand Physiol Behav 1972;8:363-71. A dream is a conscious experience that occurs during sleep. In such a condition, the brain produces a behavior that immobilizes the animal, in order to simulate it is dead and may thus become uninteresting to a predator that is in search of fresh flesh. In normal humans they found that around 20% of the dreams contain a vestibular component (vertigo, sensation of head drop) but in people with a vestibular illness the proportion of such dreams increased to over 70%, as expected from the close relationship between dreams and the events occurring in the previous day (39). 136. Brain 1997;120:1173-97. By visually examining the amplitude of theta waves in these examples it seems they vary at random but when the instant variation of voltage is plotted as a function of time, a regular variation appears during the phasic movements (figure 10). Lucrce. Both frequency and voltage of theta waves in rats generally increase during oniric activity, as depicted in figure 7, and in figure 8 a clearcut episode of visual oniric activity is expressed as a potent increase in theta waves frequency and voltage, concomitantly with a burst of eye movements. In an extensive review on this subject, Solms (2000) describes a complete cessation of dreaming in patients with posterior cortical or deep bilateral frontal lesions (96). 123. Our hypothesis is that the cerebellum is involved in overall corrections of the components of all kinds of behavior, including sleep. Essential manifestations of dreaming are the conscious experience, the electrophysiological, the motor and the vegetative expression of oniric behaviors in humans as well as in other animals. Some of his statements, hereby reproduced in a simplified form from his book on sleep and dreams, briefly illustrate his contribution to the study of this subject: "All creatures that have four limbs and are sanguine (mammals) display signs that they dream while asleep. In 1999, Ribeiro et al., assaying zif-268 expression in control rats and in rats subjected to a rich environment training, found that in control animals this gene protein generally decreased, mainly in the cerebral cortex, from wakefulness to synchronized sleep and from synchronized to desynchronized sleep (109). A regular oscillation modulates the amplitude of the potentials. 2011 Dec;20(4):998-1008. doi: 10.1016/j.concog.2010.10.005. Functional neuroanatomy of human rapid-eye-movement sleep and dreaming. The main purpose of experimental decerebration is to study the mechanisms of the fundamental posture, that is, the standing posture. When a dream is a nightmare, both motor and vegetative events may be very intense. WebHe says the function of dreams is that by reproducing difficult or unsolved life situations or experiences, the dream aids towards a solving or resolution of the problems. Usually such increases in blood pressure are not enough to lead it to attain normal levels but during a nightmare blood pressure may go up to 200 mmHg. After transection of the brain stem at the pontomesencephalic transition, rostrally to locus coeruleus, desynchronized sleep still occurs below the transection (10,90-93). Pompeiano O. Mechanisms responsible for spinal inhibition during desynchronized sleep. In rats only the frontal cortex presents desynchronization whereas in all the remaining cortex, and in many subcortical sites, the electro-oscillograms oscillate as theta waves. ", "As to the oviparous creatures, it is obvious that they sleep but it is impossible to state that they dream. Plenum Press, 1990. Doneshka & Kehaiyov (1978) reported dreams with striking vestibular sensations. 49. 107. Epub 2009 Oct 1. J Neurosci 1991;11:2804-11. When the brain stem is transected between the anterior and the posterior colliculi in cats the decerebrate preparation is obtained. At 36C, for instance, desynchronized sleep spans to about 10% of time, at 23C it occupies nearly 80% of the time, what has not been explained so far. Guazzi M, Baccelli G, Zanchetti A. Carotid body chemoreceptors: physiological role in buffering fall in blood pressure during sleep. In non-human animals the report regarding dreams is obviously impossible but, fortunately, a dream can be detected in both humans and other species by analyzing its motor, vegetative and electrophysiological manifestations, as will be described below. The physiological-functioning theory suggests that dreaming works the same way. Brain Res 1982;233:287-98. National Library of Medicine 106. On the functional role of consciousness. WebDream theories attempt to inform us of our deeper psychological states and shed light on the function of our dreams. J Neurophysiol 1964;27:152-71. This fundamental issue in learning is, however, still far from being settled, inasmuch as there are several controversial facts in the pertinent literature. As pointed 17. to the nervous tissue and muscles during the activation of the circuits that program and execute a particular behavior; and 2. To what degree, and in what way, implications can be drawn from these findings for the psychology of dreaming is controversial. 124. Herodotus, in his Histories, the first textbook on History ever written, tells that the Persian King Xerxes dreamed quite often about the war he was about to fight against Athens. Simes CA, Valle AC, Timo-Iaria C. Correlation between concomitant theta waves in nucleus reticularis pontis oralis and in the hippocampus, thalamus and neocortex during dreaming in rats. One is that dreams are generated by the activation of neural activity in the brainstem and its signal transmission to the cortex. 132. (57). Our data with rats are quite consistent as to the variation of blood pressure and heart rate during oniric activity. 125. 33. 19. Hence, experiments with such animals are extremely valuable and thus will be emphasized in the present review. Another hypothesis to account for desynchronized sleep function is that this phase of sleep is programmed to occur when central temperature is low and that it has a thermoregulatory function. During this bright period of the Middle Ages some physicians also reasoned about dreams. We spend a lot of time sleeping. McNiss, in his book Philosophy of Sleep, published in 1854, agreed with Aristotle, regarding eye movements as a consequence of visual dreams, and Pinkerton, in Sleep and its Phenomena, also took the facial movements of dogs and cats during sleep as a manifestation of dreams (4,5). The meaning of dreams. Predicting Intention to Participate in Community Physical Activities for Adults with Physical Disabilities. 6. Wehr TA. WebOne hypothesis drawn from TST is that real threatening events encountered by the individual during wakefulness should lead to an increased activation of the system, a threat simulation response, and therefore, to an increased frequency and severity of threatening events in dreams. Selective deactivation of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex has been found in desynchronized sleep. The authors suggest that such a disturbance of reproduction occurs because desynchronized sleep (and consequently dreaming) was prevented to occur normally in infancy but the functional meaning of this interesting phenomenon. Christy B, Nathans D. DNA binding site of the growth factor-inducible protein Zif268. The result of such conscious identification is a dream. In fact, when the voltage of each theta wave in one site is compared with the voltage in another site it is possible to assess the degree of coincidence or phase shift between the two sites. Usually r is very high between area 17 (visual cortex) and the hippocampus. During a visual dream the eyes move (Figure 3) whereas during an auditory dream the middle ear ossicles (stapedius and tensor tympani) are activated (Figure 4). This may be related to the presence of pet animals in most families in the Western countries and consequently this "subject" probably becomes the main thought of children. Dreams during REM sleep tend to be longer, more vivid, more story-like, and more bizarre than those during NREM sleep. 2020 Nov 12;11:565694. doi: 10.3389/fneur.2020.565694. 5. On Sleep and Dreams. The reason for such vegetative adjustments is obviously that the nervous tissue is metabolically very demanding, so much so that 20% of the inspired oxygen goes to the nervous system. These patients are not able to produce visual reminiscences, which may be explained by the fact that visual information is permanently kept in the visual cortex. It seems that not only humans but also dogs, cows, sheep and goats and the entire family of four-legged viviparous animals do dream. If we dream we are walking, the electromyographic recordings from muscles involved in such behavior show quite clearly that they are not able to produce normal movements. Apparently, the main cause of such a reduction of blood pressure and heart rate is the active inhibition of the baroreceptor reflexes during this phase of sleep. In rats, heart rate is clearly accelerated during the periods of oniric activity, expressed as rostrum+vibrissae, eye, head, ear and limb movements. Hodes R, Dement WC. 110. This author reported that dream production in human subjects from 3 to 5 years of age was minimal and that the content of the dream reports generally consisted of "static imagery" in the absence of narrative context. Although it may happen in any sleep phase, it prevails during the desynchronized phase. Neurosc Biobehav Rev 1992;16:372-97. Mancia M. One possible function of sleep: to produce dreams. 30. Science 1966;153:206-8. The substrate, physiological mechanism, and function of dreaming have been explained by many scientists from the neurological, psychiatric, psychological, and philosophical perspective. Assoc Psychophysiol Stud Sleep. Maquet P, Pters J, Aerts J, Delfiore G, Degueldre C, Luxen A, Franck G. Nature. 67. However, interruption of the pyramidal tract hardly affects the appearance of muscular twitches during desyncronized sleep (83,84) but the reticulospinal tract seems to be involved in such twitches (85) whereas the associaton cortex does not appear to be activated (86). A dream is a succession of images, ideas, emotions, and sensations that occur for the most part involuntarily during certain stages of sleep. In some mammals only one hemisphere at a time may be in desynchronized sleep. Science 1987;238:797-9. We found that, in the average, during attentive wakefulness heart rate is nearly 320 bpm; in synchronized sleep it decreases to 244 bpm and during phasic movements that unveil oniric activity it increases again. 81. Evarts EV. 37. 118. Sleep Res 1973;4:65. Sakai K, Sastre JP, Salvert D, Touret M, Toyama M, Jouvet M. Tegmentoreticular projections with special reference to the muscular distonia during paradoxical sleep in the cat. 71. Erlbaum, 1992. Physiological-functioning theor y was supported in a 2009 paper written by J. Allan 88. Oswald I. However, we all know that many dreams are not emotional at all. Another fancy hypothesis is the one that proposes that we dream to forget, in order to delete "unwanted" information by reverse learning or unlearning (118). As any information consciously identified, a dream triggers a specific behavior, that we call an oniric behavior. A correlation has been proposed between the development of desynchronized sleep in children and their waking cognitive maturation (24). Spreng LF, Johnson LC, Lubin A. Autonomic correlates of eye movement bursts during state REM sleep. Elsevier Publishing Company Amsterdam, 1962. Therefore, theta waves undergo both AM and FM changes that certainly carry some kind of information that may prove in the future to be crucial for understanding dreams. The discovery of the close association between rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and dreaming and development of sleep laboratory techniques ushered in a new era in the study of dreams. Since memorized information is the basic material to build up dreams, it is understandable that many (but not all) dreams are threatening and emotionally highly charged (111). Recall of dreams is much greater and the report is much more detailed when one is awakened during desynchronized sleep and the stage I of synchronized sleep, right after alpha waves disappear and are replaced by a lower frequency and lower voltage electro-oscillographic pattern (22,23). As will be shown below, in rats, that are macrosmatic animals, rostrum (snout) movements predominate during desynchronized sleep over eye movements (31,32). Wiley-Interscience, New york 1990:535-583. In other words, they're simply a byproduct of brain processes during sleep. Hippocrates and Alkmaeon, who discovered that the mind is in the brain, not in the heart, knew that dreams were originated in the brain. Braz J Med Biol Res 1995;28:385-96. 114. Muscle atonia during desynchronized sleep is, as stated above, generated in the alpha-coeruleus nucleus and involves both direct and indirect pathways that inhibit the motoneurons. Chaudhuri A. Neural activity mapping with inducible transcription factors. 133. Regional cerebral blood flow throughout the sleep-cyle an (H2O)-O-15 PET study. Arch Psychiat Nervenkrankh 1938;109:1-17. The motor components of dreams are expressed as clearly different patterns, according to the dream content. In sleep pathology there is a well-known syndrome, expressed as powerful movements during desynchronized sleep. Central activation of autonomic effectors during mental stimulation of motor activity in man. Fenn WO, Hursh JB. In humans the electro-oscillograms during desynchronized sleep are expressed as overall cortical desynchronization, whence the adequacy of the name created by Moruzzi, desynchronized sleep. Jouvet believes that dreaming activity plays a key role during the earliest years of life and thus may be involved in continuously programming some of the most subtle reactions of our consciousness during wakefulness. The inhibition of motoneurons could be complete but we ignore why it is not. For instance, zif-268 has been shown to induce the expression of a synapse-specific protein, synapsin II (101), and has been linked to the induction of hippocampal long-term potentiation (102,103) and other plasticity phenomena. Perachio AA. Neurosc Res 1993;17:181-202. Cien Cult 1995;47:221-34. Also, correlation is high when theta waves in the thalamic reticular nucleus are matched to those occurring in the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis. University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1963. During the second century of the present era, Galen, a Greek physician who practiced Medicine in Rome and was a great anatomist and clinician, knew that temperature, heart rate and respiration exhibited cyclic changes at night, which he attributed to dreaming (3). Darwin C. The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals. A related point of view was put forward by Krueger & Obal (1993), who proposed that, on the basis of use-dependent synaptic stabilization, the neuronal assembly not activated during wakefulness will be activated during sleep, to prevent it from atrophy (117). 4 According to Freud, (1987) suggested the occurrence of two kinds of eye movements during dreams, one associated to the very dream content, another of reflex nature, that may be involved in those occurring in children and in blind people but such a hypothesis is unlikely to be valid (35). During dreaming, however, it is well known that both heart rate and blood pressure undergo short duration increases (as related to the decreased values), which are most likely linked to the oniric behavior. Front Neurol. Lovblad KO, Thomas R, Jakod PM, Scammel T, Bassetti C, Griswold M, et al. Thermoregulation is impaired in desynchronized sleep (64) but it is unlikely that body temperature changes due to dreaming activity, inasmuch as variations of temperature are slow while dreaming is a fast pace phenomenon. Takakusaki K, Ohta y, Mori S. Single medullary reticulospinal neurons exert postsynaptic inhibitory effects via inhibitory interneurons upon alpha-motoneurons innervating cat hindlimb muscles. In 1936, Klaue (12) described periods of sleep in cats characterized by high frequency electrocorticograms that he considered as a sign of deep sleep and in 1950 Passouant described a phase of desynchronization (a term coined by Adrian to label an increase in frequency with a decrease in voltage) of the EEG potentials in humans. Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex has been proposed physiological function dream theory the development of desynchronized sleep is mediated by hyperpolarization of membrane! The role of monoamines and acetylcholine-containing neurons in the thalamic reticular nucleus are to... Mind integrates new information acquired during the desynchronized phase subjected to a rich-environment zif-268 increased significantly synchronized... Motoneurons by circuits in the thalamic reticular nucleus are matched to those occurring in the unrestrained cat oviparous,... Ko, Thomas r, Jakod PM, Scammel T, Bassetti C, Luxen a, Franck G..! 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